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Literature Review: Individual Philosophical Ideology
and Its Influence on the Ethical Decision-Making Process
Abstract
Individual philosophical ideology is included as a moderating variable influencing the ethical decision-making process of several theoretical models. However, limited empirical research exists concerning philosophical ideology, specifically related to its effect on ethical judgment. This paper summarizes key relevant theoretical models and the related empirical research. Results indicate that high levels of idealism and low levels of relativism are related to judgments of ethically questionable behavior as ethical. Results also indicated that individuals making deontological evaluations are more strongly tied to ethical judgment. The implications and limitations of these models and studies are also included, specifically related to the use of scenarios and the Ethical Position Questionnaire (EPQ) in several of the studies. Future research should consider the applicability of the methodology employed for accurately
capturing ethical judgment of individuals that exhibit high levels of
relativism.
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Paying the Price or Reaping the Rewards: Do Perceived Consequences
Influence Potential Whistle-Blowers?
Abstract
This study strives to clarify the link between perceived positive and negative consequences and the decision process of potential whistle-blowers. Existing research indicates that potential whistle-blowers go through a cost-benefit analysis when deciding whether or not to report an unethical act to officials within or outside of their organization. However, there is little information as to the effect of perceived positive and negative consequences as part of the cost-benefit analysis. This study was designed to determine if perceived positive and negative consequences moderate the relationship between a judgment of the(un)ethicality of an act and intent to report that act to a coworker within the organization. Participants of this study were 152 private and public accountants. Participants reviewed a familiar business scenario and answered questions regarding their perception of the (un)ethicality of the situation described. Participants also read a statement that described one of five potential positive, neutral, or negative consequences of reporting the unethical act to a superior within the organization. Based on the scenario and the perceived consequence, participants were asked to rate their intent to report the act (i.e., “blow the whistle”). Findings suggest that participant age, degree of moral relativism and tendency to provide socially desirable responses provide significant information regarding the whistle-blowing decision process. Limitations and implications are also discussed.
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Transformational Leaders and the Use of Persuasion: The Role of Emotion
and the Importance of Authenticity
and the Importance of Authenticity
Abstract
Transformational leaders are associated with inspirational motivation and charisma. They seek to lead by providing a compelling vision for the future and encouraging follower involvement in implementing that vision through intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Followers are encouraged to develop their skills and use innovative and creative problem-solving techniques. This paper explores the variables that contribute to effective transformational leadership, particularly authentic (or ethical) behaviors, strong persuasive arguments, and happy followers. Several persuasive theories are discussed as they relate to persuasive argument recipient affect and degree or type of information processing.
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Atlas Sighed: Measuring and Assessing Objectivist Support for Corporate Social Responsibility
Abstract
Recent political coverage ties certain conservative and political theories to Ayn Rand’s Objectivism and her philosophical and political argument favoring the reduction of government regulation of businesses. Based on the conservative embrace of a more simplified Objectivism, as well as the growing influence of the tea party movement, this study explores the degree to which people profess familiarity and agreement with both the popularized basic principles and the more complex virtue-based principles of Ayn Rand’s Objectivism. This study also explores whether there is a link between agreement with the basic or virtue-based principles of Objectivism and opinions regarding altruistic organizational citizenship behaviors (“OCBs”) and corporate social responsibility (“CSR”) policies. Results from a pilot study to test construct validity of a newly-developed Objectivism scale reveals some significant relationships to be tested in additional contexts. Further practical implications are discussed.
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The Importance of Superstition: Spinoza’s Concept of Individual Freedom, Religious Freedom, and the Security of the Free State
Abstract
In his essay “Locke, Spinoza and the Philosophical Debate Concerning Toleration in the Early Enlightenment (c. 1670 – c. 1750), Jonathan I. Israel claims that Spinoza’s concern for individual freedom supersedes his concern for religious freedom. However, I will show that this statement is based on a narrow definition of religious freedom. In fact, Spinoza’s individual freedom must include religious freedom, because both are based on thought and expression. An individual’s freedom includes piety which, if properly practiced, excludes superstition, as defined by Spinoza. In fact, throughout Spinoza’s writings, superstition is nearly equivalent to organized religion. The purpose of Spinoza’s ideal state is freedom of thought, which can only be achieved by implementing laws to constrain the natural human passions. Freedom of thought includes, therefore, unconstrained yet reasoned thoughts about religion. The evidence exists in Spinoza’s definition of “superstition” and explanation as to how the creation of superstition endangers the security and viability of the Free State.
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Elements of John Locke’s Toleration: Separation of Religious Organizations from the Civil Powers of the State and the Individual Search for Salvation
Abstract
John Locke described his theory of toleration based upon his assertion that people of varying faiths can live together and practice their own religious beliefs without causing harm to the civil rights of others (Toleration, p. 240). This theory is consistent with a voluntary contract between the individual and the state, which allows for the creation of the powers of the state civil government. Locke believed that the unifying force of citizenry is moral acts, but differentiated between the individual internal processes and external behaviors. The civil government can regulate external behaviors, but only the individual can be aware of the internal processes and the search for the true religion. This differentiation provides the basis for the separation of religious organizations from the civil powers of the state. However, Locke listed specific groups that were to be excluded from his theory of toleration, based upon his belief that the state should protect the citizenry. All of these elements provide the basis for Locke’s toleration, which are briefly compared and contrasted with the theories of Thomas Hobbes and Benedict de Spinoza.
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